Today's Passage
This opening passage establishes Thucydides' methodology and historical perspective.
Crawley Translation (1910)
The State of Greece from the earliest Times to the Commencement of the Peloponnesian War
Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning at the moment that it broke out, and believing that it would be a great war and more worthy of relation than any that had preceded it. This belief was not without its grounds. The preparations of both the combatants were in every department in the last state of perfection; and he could see the rest of the Hellenic race taking sides in the quarrel; those who delayed doing so at once having it in contemplation. Indeed this was the greatest movement yet known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but of a large part of the barbarian world—I had almost said of mankind. For though the events of remote antiquity, and even those that more immediately preceded the war, could not from lapse of time be clearly ascertained, yet the evidences which an inquiry carried as far back as was practicable leads me to trust, all point to the conclusion that there was nothing on a great scale, either in war or in other matters.
For instance, it is evident that the country now called Hellas had in ancient times no settled population; on the contrary, migrations were of frequent occurrence, the several tribes readily abandoning their homes under the pressure of superior numbers. Without commerce, without freedom of communication either by land or sea, cultivating no more of their territory than the exigencies of life required, destitute of capital, never planting their land (for they could not tell when an invader might not come and take it all away, and when he did come they had no walls to stop him), thinking that the necessities of daily sustenance could be supplied at one place as well as another, they cared little for shifting their habitation, and consequently neither built large cities nor attained to any other form of greatness. The richest soils were always most subject to this change of masters; such as the district now called Thessaly, Boeotia, most of the Peloponnese, Arcadia excepted, and the most fertile parts of the rest of Hellas. The goodness of the land favoured the aggrandizement of particular individuals, and thus created faction which proved a fertile source of ruin. It also invited invasion. Accordingly Attica, from the poverty of its soil enjoying from a very remote period freedom from faction, never changed its inhabitants. And here is no inconsiderable exemplification of my assertion that the migrations were the cause of there being no correspondent growth in other parts. The most powerful victims of war or faction from the rest of Hellas took refuge with the Athenians as a safe retreat; and at an early period, becoming naturalized, swelled the already large population of the city to such a height that Attica became at last too small to hold them, and they had to send out colonies to Ionia.
Modern Translation
Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning his account at the very moment hostilities commenced. He believed this would prove to be a great war, more deserving of historical record than any that had come before. This conviction was well-founded. Both sides had brought their preparations to the highest state of readiness in every sphere; moreover, he could observe the entire Greek world choosing sides in the conflict, with those who remained neutral contemplating which alliance to join. This was indeed the most significant upheaval yet witnessed in history, affecting not only the Greeks but a considerable portion of the non-Greek world—one might almost say all of humanity. While the events of distant antiquity, and even those immediately preceding the war, could not be determined with certainty due to the passage of time, nevertheless, the evidence uncovered by pushing inquiry back as far as possible all suggests that nothing of comparable magnitude had occurred before, whether in warfare or other affairs.
For example, it is clear that the land now known as Greece possessed no stable population in ancient times; instead, migrations occurred frequently, with various tribes readily abandoning their territories when pressed by more numerous enemies. Lacking trade, without safe communication by land or sea, farming only what bare necessity demanded, possessing no accumulated wealth, never investing in their land (since they could never know when an invader might seize everything, and having no fortifications to resist such attacks), believing that basic daily needs could be met anywhere, they thought little of relocating. Consequently, they neither constructed substantial cities nor achieved any other form of distinction. The most fertile lands were particularly susceptible to such changes in ownership—regions like present-day Thessaly, Boeotia, most of the Peloponnese (except Arcadia), and the richest areas elsewhere in Greece. The land's fertility enabled certain individuals to amass power, thereby generating civil strife that became a productive source of destruction. It also attracted foreign invasions. By contrast, Attica, because its poor soil kept it free from internal conflict since earliest times, never experienced a change in its population. This provides significant support for my argument that migrations prevented comparable development elsewhere. The most prominent refugees from war or civil discord throughout Greece sought sanctuary with the Athenians; becoming citizens early on, they so enlarged the already substantial population that Attica eventually proved too small to contain them all, necessitating the dispatch of colonies to Ionia.
Historical Context
This opening passage establishes Thucydides' methodology and historical perspective. Writing as the Peloponnesian War begins (431 BCE), he justifies his decision to chronicle contemporary events rather than mythical antiquity. He introduces his theory of early Greek development, arguing that constant migrations and instability prevented significant political or cultural achievements in most regions. The exception was Athens, whose poor soil paradoxically became an advantage by discouraging invasion and internal strife. This allowed Athens to maintain a stable population that grew through accepting refugees, eventually leading to Athenian colonization of Ionia. This archaeological introduction serves to demonstrate the unprecedented nature of the current conflict between Athens and Sparta.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Thucydides' Historical Method
Thucydides pioneered scientific historiography by focusing on contemporary events he could verify, rejecting mythological explanations, and analyzing underlying causes. His emphasis on evidence and rational inquiry established standards for historical writing that influence scholars today.
Learn more →Early Greek Migrations
The prehistoric movements Thucydides describes likely refer to the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100-800 BCE) following the Bronze Age collapse. Archaeological evidence supports patterns of population displacement and resettlement throughout the Greek world during this period.
Learn more →Athenian Autochthony
The claim that Athenians were indigenous to Attica became central to Athenian identity and propaganda. This myth of autochthony (being 'born from the earth') distinguished Athens from other Greek cities and justified their imperial ambitions.
Learn more →Ionian Colonization
Athens claimed to be the mother city of the Ionian settlements in Asia Minor. This connection became politically significant during the Peloponnesian War, as Athens used it to justify control over these cities within their empire.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Herodotus: Histories (Book 1.56-58)
Herodotus discusses the distinction between Dorian and Ionian Greeks, including the claim that Athenians were autochthonous while other Greeks had migrated. This provides context for understanding ethnic divisions in the Peloponnesian War.
Read passage →Aristotle: Politics (Book 2.1271b)
Aristotle analyzes how geographical factors influence political development, complementing Thucydides' argument about how Attica's poor soil contributed to political stability.
Read passage →Pausanias: Description of Greece (Book 1.2.6)
Pausanias records traditions about early inhabitants of Attica and refugee settlements, providing later evidence for the demographic patterns Thucydides describes.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Thucydides' emphasis on verifiable evidence and contemporary events differ from earlier Greek historians like Homer or Herodotus? What are the strengths and limitations of his approach?
- What role does environmental determinism play in Thucydides' explanation of Athenian exceptionalism? How might modern historians critique this theory?
- How does the myth of Athenian autochthony relate to Athens' imperial ideology during the 5th century BCE?
- Why does Thucydides begin his contemporary history with speculation about prehistoric Greece? What rhetorical purpose does this serve?