Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning his account at the very moment hostilities commenced. He believed this would prove to be a...

There is another factor that significantly reinforces my belief in the weakness of ancient times. Before the Trojan War, there is no evidence of any unified action throughout Greece, nor was the name ...

Even today, many regions of Greece still maintain these ancient customs—the Ozolian Locrians, the Aetolians, the Acarnanians, and that part of the mainland. Among these mainland peoples, the practice ...

The islanders were also notorious pirates. These were Carians and Phoenicians who had colonized most of the islands, a fact proven by later evidence. When Athens purified Delos during this war, all th...

Agamemnon ruled a land-based empire; without naval power, he could not have controlled any islands except those nearest the mainland (which would have been few in number)....

From this expedition we can draw conclusions about earlier military ventures. Now, Mycenae may have been a modest settlement, and many cities from that era might seem relatively insignificant today, b...

Even after the Trojan War, Greece remained caught up in migrations and resettlement, unable to achieve the stability necessary for development. The delayed return of the Greeks from Troy sparked numer...

As the power of Greece expanded and the pursuit of wealth became increasingly important, state revenues grew substantially. This economic growth led to the establishment of tyrannies nearly everywhere...

The naval forces of the Greeks during the period I have outlined were as I have described them. Despite their relative weakness, these fleets represented the greatest source of power for those who dev...

Eventually, however, the time arrived when Sparta permanently overthrew the tyrannies of Athens and the much older tyrannical regimes throughout Greece—except for those in Sicily. Although Sparta expe...

Having presented my findings about ancient times, I acknowledge that believing every specific detail will prove challenging. Most people handle traditions—even those of their own homeland—by accepting...

Concerning the speeches recorded in this history, some were delivered before the war began, others during its course. Some I heard personally, while others were reported to me from various sources. In...

The Persian Wars, though they represented the greatest accomplishment of earlier times, reached their conclusion swiftly through just two naval battles and two land engagements. In contrast, the Pelop...

The city of Epidamnus lies to the right as one enters the Ionian Gulf. The surrounding region is populated by the Taulantians, an Illyrian tribe. This city was established as a colony by Corcyra, with...

These accumulated grievances made Corinth eager to deliver the promised assistance to Epidamnus. They publicly recruited volunteer colonists and assembled a military force consisting of Ambraciots, Le...

When the Corcyraeans learned of these preparations, they sent a delegation to Corinth, accompanied by envoys from Sparta and Sicyon whom they had convinced to join them. They demanded that Corinth wit...

Following the naval engagement, the Corcyraeans erected a victory monument on Leukimme, a promontory of Corcyra, and executed all their prisoners except the Corinthians, whom they held as prisoners of...

Athenians! When a state that has never before provided significant aid or support to its neighbors—service for which they might now claim repayment—comes before them as we do today seeking assistance,...

There are numerous compelling reasons why you will have cause to congratulate yourselves if you accept our proposal. First, you will be extending aid to a state that has committed no offense against o...

If Corinth claims that it's improper for you to accept her colony as an ally, she should understand that while colonies honor their mother cities when treated well, they become alienated through unjus...

However, your true policy should be to give us open support and assistance. The benefits of this approach, as we stated at the outset of our address, are numerous. We'll highlight what is perhaps the ...

The Corcyraeans, in the speech we've just heard, don't limit themselves to discussing whether they should be admitted to your alliance. They also accuse us of injustice and claim they're victims of an...

Regarding their claim that they wanted the dispute submitted to arbitration first, it's clear that such an offer from those who hold all the advantages cannot be credited with the same sincerity as on...

This, then, is what we are entitled to demand according to Greek custom and law. But we also have advice to offer and claims upon your gratitude—claims which, since we pose no threat to you as we are ...

After hearing both delegations speak, the Athenians convened two assemblies. In the first meeting, there was a clear inclination to accept Corinth's arguments. By the second assembly, however, public ...

Meanwhile, the Corinthians had completed their preparations and set sail for Corcyra with one hundred and fifty ships. Elis contributed ten vessels, Megara twelve, Leucas ten, Ambracia twenty-seven, a...

After completing their preparations, the Corinthians provisioned themselves for three days and set sail from Chimerium under cover of darkness, ready for battle. As dawn broke, they caught sight of th...

Following their victory, the Corinthians neglected to secure the disabled enemy vessels by lashing them together and towing them away. Instead, they focused on slaughtering the men in the water, saili...

The following day, the thirty Athenian warships set sail, joined by all the Corcyraean vessels capable of putting to sea. They sailed toward the harbor at Sybota where the Corinthian fleet was anchore...

On their return voyage, the Corinthians captured Anactorium, located at the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf. They seized this territory through deception, as it was jointly held by both Corcyraeans and...

During this time, the Potidaeans dispatched ambassadors to Athens, hoping to persuade the Athenians not to take any hostile action against them. They also sent representatives to Sparta along with the...

The Athenians promptly learned of the cities' rebellion. When they discovered that Aristeus and his reinforcements were advancing, they dispatched two thousand of their own heavy infantry and forty sh...

During this time, the Potidaeans and the Peloponnesian forces under Aristeus had taken up positions on the isthmus facing Olynthus, awaiting the Athenian attack, and had set up their supply market out...

The Athenians had immediately constructed and manned fortifications on the isthmus side of the wall. However, they built no fortifications on the Pallene side, as they didn't believe they had sufficie...

But the siege of Potidaea ended Corinth's inaction; she had citizens trapped inside the city, and moreover, she feared for its fate. She immediately summoned the allies to Sparta and vehemently accuse...

You are the ones responsible for all of this. You were the ones who first permitted them to fortify their city after the Persian War, and later to build the Long Walls. From that time until now, you h...

We hope none of you will interpret these words of warning as hostile rhetoric. After all, one corrects friends who have gone astray; accusations are reserved for enemies who have inflicted harm. Moreo...

Such is Athens, your adversary. Yet you Spartans continue to hesitate, failing to grasp that lasting peace belongs to those who not only wield their power with justice but also demonstrate their resol...

We did not come here to debate with your allies, but to address the specific matters for which our city sent us. However, the intensity of the accusations we hear leveled against us compels us to spea...

This, then, was how things turned out, and it became abundantly clear that Greece's fate rested entirely on her naval forces. To this outcome, we Athenians contributed three absolutely crucial factors...

Certainly, Spartans, we don't deserve the extreme hostility we face from the Greeks—not based on the patriotism we showed during the Persian crisis, nor the wisdom of our policies, and certainly not f...

We believe our restraint would be most clearly proven by observing how others might act in our position; yet paradoxically, our very fairness has earned us criticism rather than praise. When we've wai...

Take your time in reaching this decision, for the matter is of utmost gravity. Do not let yourselves be swayed by others' arguments and grievances into bringing calamity upon yourselves. Consider care...

I have not lived this long, Spartans, without experiencing many wars, and I see among you men of my own age who will not make the common mistake of desiring war through inexperience or from believing ...

I would not have you be so callous as to allow them to harm your allies or to ignore their scheming; but neither should you rush immediately to war. Instead, send envoys to protest their actions in la...

The deliberate caution and careful timing that our critics attack most fiercely should not embarrass you. If we rush into war unprepared, our haste to begin will only postpone our victory. Moreover, t...

I cannot claim to understand the lengthy speech delivered by the Athenians. While they spoke extensively in self-praise, they never once denied that they are harming our allies and the Peloponnese. If...

This is how Athens found itself in the position from which its power would grow. After the Persians retreated from Europe, defeated on both land and sea by the Greeks, and after those who escaped by s...

When the Spartans realized what the Athenians intended to do, they dispatched ambassadors to Athens. They themselves would have preferred that neither Athens nor any other city possess fortification w...

The Spartans showed no outward signs of anger toward the Athenians when they heard the news. Their embassy, apparently, had been motivated not by a desire to interfere but rather to offer guidance to ...

During this period, Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was dispatched from Sparta to serve as supreme commander of the Greek forces, leading twenty ships from the Peloponnese. The Athenians joined him wit...

After the Athenians had inherited their leadership through the allies' voluntary decision—driven by their hatred of Pausanias—they determined which cities should contribute money and which should prov...

The Athenians first besieged and captured Eion on the Strymon River from the Persians, enslaving its inhabitants under the command of Cimon, son of Miltiades. Next, they conquered Scyros, an island in...

Next we turn to the combined land and naval operations at the Eurymedon River, where the Athenians and their allies faced the Persians. Under Cimon, son of Miltiades, the Athenians achieved victory in...

While this was happening, the Spartans realized their campaign against the rebels at Ithome would be protracted, so they called upon their allies for assistance—particularly the Athenians, who arrived...

During this period, Inaros—son of Psammetichus and a Libyan king ruling the Libyans along Egypt's frontier—established his base of operations at Marea, the city situated above Pharos. He orchestrated ...

During this period, the Athenians launched a naval assault on Haliae, where they encountered forces from Corinth and Epidaurus. The Corinthians emerged victorious from this engagement. Later, the Athe...

Around this time, the Athenians began constructing the Long Walls extending to the sea—one toward Phalerum and another toward Piraeus. Meanwhile, the Phocians launched a campaign against Doris, the an...

During this time, the Athenians and their allies remained in Egypt, experiencing the full range of wartime fortunes. Initially, the Athenians controlled Egypt, prompting the Persian King to dispatch M...

Three years later, the Peloponnesians and Athenians agreed to a five-year truce. Free from Greek warfare, the Athenians launched an expedition to Cyprus with two hundred ships from their own fleet and...

Shortly after the Athenians returned from Euboea, they concluded a thirty-year peace treaty with Sparta and her allies, surrendering their strongholds in the Peloponnese—Nisaea, Pegae, Troezen, and Ac...

Upon receiving this intelligence, the Athenians immediately dispatched sixty warships to Samos. Of these, sixteen vessels were diverted to Caria to monitor the Phoenician fleet's movements, while othe...

After these events, though not many years passed, we finally arrive at the incidents already described—the Corcyraean and Potidaean affairs that provided the immediate pretext for this war. All these ...

Fellow allies, we can no longer fault the Spartans for neglecting their responsibilities: they have not only voted for war themselves but have convened us here for that very purpose. We emphasize thei...

To apply these principles to our current situation: if we are now initiating war, it is because we have been wronged and have legitimate grievances. Once we have punished the Athenians, we will cease ...

We possess additional strategies for waging this war—most notably, inciting rebellion among their allies, which remains the most effective means of stripping them of the revenues that constitute their...

Your position, therefore, from whatever perspective you examine it, will fully justify your decision to go to war. We recommend this course of action in the interests of all, remembering that shared i...

During this period, the Spartans sent multiple delegations to Athens with various grievances, aiming to establish the strongest possible justification for war should the Athenians refuse their demands...

This, then, was the curse that the Spartans demanded the Athenians expel from their city. They claimed to be motivated primarily by concern for the gods' honor, but they were well aware that Pericles,...

This was everything the letter revealed, and Xerxes was delighted with its contents. He dispatched Artabazus, son of Pharnaces, to the coast with instructions to replace Megabates, the current governo...

The Spartans possessed no concrete evidence against Pausanias—neither his political opponents nor the state as a whole—of the unequivocal sort necessary to prosecute a member of the royal house, parti...

After examining the letter, the ephors felt more confident in their suspicions. Nevertheless, they wanted to hear Pausanias incriminate himself directly. Following their plan, the messenger went to Ta...

To return to Pausanias's collaboration with the Persians: during the investigation, evidence emerged that also implicated Themistocles. The Spartans therefore sent ambassadors to Athens demanding that...

After receiving monetary compensation from him—funds that came partly from his associates in Athens and partly from his secret reserves in Argos—Themistocles traveled inland accompanied by a Persian f...

It is reported that the King approved of Themistocles' proposal and instructed him to proceed accordingly. During the intervening period, Themistocles devoted himself to learning the Persian language ...