Today's Passage
This passage is from the famous Funeral Oration delivered by Pericles in 431/430 BCE, during the first year of the Peloponnesian War.
Crawley Translation (1910)
“I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the present. They dwelt in the country without break in the succession from generation to generation, and handed it down free to the present time by their valour. And if our more remote ancestors deserve praise, much more do our own fathers, who added to their inheritance the empire which we now possess, and spared no pains to be able to leave their acquisitions to us of the present generation. Lastly, there are few parts of our dominions that have not been augmented by those of us here, who are still more or less in the vigour of life; while the mother country has been furnished by us with everything that can enable her to depend on her own resources whether for war or for peace. That part of our history which tells of the military achievements which gave us our several possessions, or of the ready valour with which either we or our fathers stemmed the tide of Hellenic or foreign aggression, is a theme too familiar to my hearers for me to dilate on, and I shall therefore pass it by. But what was the road by which we reached our position, what the form of government under which our greatness grew, what the national habits out of which it sprang; these are questions which I may try to solve before I proceed to my panegyric upon these men; since I think this to be a subject upon which on the present occasion a speaker may properly dwell, and to which the whole assemblage, whether citizens or foreigners, may listen with advantage.
“Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens. Against this fear is our chief safeguard, teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace.
Modern Translation
I will start with our ancestors, for it is both right and fitting that they should receive the honor of being mentioned first on such an occasion. They lived continuously in this land, passing it down through successive generations, and by their courage they handed it to us as a free country. If these distant ancestors deserve our praise, even more so do our own fathers, who not only preserved what they inherited but also added to it the empire we now control, working tirelessly to ensure they could pass these achievements on to us, the current generation. Moreover, those of us gathered here today, still in our prime, have ourselves expanded nearly every part of our dominion, and we have equipped our mother city with all the resources necessary for self-sufficiency in both war and peace. I will not dwell on the military campaigns through which we acquired our various territories, nor on how we and our fathers courageously resisted invasions by Greeks or barbarians—these stories are too well-known to you all to need repeating. Instead, I want to examine the path that brought us to our current position, the system of government that fostered our greatness, and the way of life from which it emerged. I believe these topics are worth exploring before I praise these fallen men, and that this entire gathering—both citizens and foreigners—will benefit from hearing about them.
Our constitution is not modeled on those of our neighbors; rather, we serve as an example for others to follow. Our system favors the majority over the minority, which is why we call it democracy. Under our laws, everyone receives equal treatment in private disputes. As for public honors, a person advances based on their reputation for excellence—social class does not override merit, nor does poverty prevent anyone from serving the state if they have the ability to do so, regardless of their humble circumstances. The freedom that characterizes our public life extends into our private affairs as well. We don't spy suspiciously on our neighbors or get angry when they live as they please, nor do we give them those disapproving looks that, while not legally punishable, are nonetheless hurtful. Yet despite this tolerance in our personal relationships, we are not lawless citizens. Fear keeps us in line—it teaches us to respect our officials and obey the laws, especially those designed to protect victims of injustice, whether these laws are written in our statutes or belong to that unwritten code whose violation brings undeniable shame.
Historical Context
This passage is from the famous Funeral Oration delivered by Pericles in 431/430 BCE, during the first year of the Peloponnesian War. As was customary in Athens, a prominent citizen was chosen to deliver a public eulogy for those who had died in battle that year. Pericles, the leading statesman of Athens, uses this occasion not merely to honor the dead but to articulate a vision of Athenian democracy and values. The speech serves as both propaganda and genuine political philosophy, presenting Athens as the 'school of Hellas.' This idealized portrait of Athens stands in stark contrast to the harsh realities of war and plague that Thucydides will soon describe, making it a pivotal moment in his narrative about the corruption of power and the tragedy of war.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Athenian Democracy
Pericles presents democracy as Athens' unique contribution to political thought, emphasizing equality before the law (isonomia) and merit-based advancement. This idealized view contrasts with critics like Plato who saw democracy as mob rule.
Learn more →The Athenian Empire
The reference to 'empire' (arche) acknowledges Athens' transformation from leader of a defensive alliance to imperial power. The Delian League had become an Athenian empire by moving its treasury to Athens in 454 BCE.
Learn more →Funeral Oration Genre
The epitaphios logos was an established Athenian institution. Pericles transforms the genre from simple eulogy into political manifesto, using the occasion to define Athenian identity and justify imperial policy.
Learn more →Written and Unwritten Laws
The distinction between written laws (nomoi) and unwritten customs (agrapha nomima) was fundamental to Greek thought. Unwritten laws included religious obligations and social norms enforced by shame rather than legal penalty.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Plato: Menexenus (236d-249c)
Plato's dialogue contains a parody funeral oration supposedly by Aspasia, Pericles' companion. It both imitates and critiques the genre, highlighting the gap between democratic rhetoric and reality.
Read passage →Aristotle: Politics (Book 3, 1275b-1276a)
Aristotle analyzes different constitutions including democracy. His definition of citizenship and discussion of democratic equality provides philosophical context for understanding Pericles' claims.
Read passage →Lysias: Funeral Oration (Oration 2)
Another example of the epitaphios genre from circa 392 BCE. Lysias emphasizes Athens' mythical past and panhellenic services, showing how the genre evolved after Athens' defeat.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Pericles' definition of democracy differ from modern conceptions? What aspects seem familiar or foreign?
- Is there a contradiction between Athens' democratic values and its imperial rule over other Greeks? How does Pericles address or avoid this tension?
- What role does the concept of 'unwritten laws' play in Pericles' vision of Athenian society? How might this relate to contemporary debates about social norms versus legal codes?
- Given that Thucydides includes this idealized portrait just before describing Athens' plague and eventual defeat, what might he want readers to understand about political rhetoric and reality?