Today's Passage
This passage describes the devastating effects of the plague that struck Athens in 430 BCE during the second year of the Peloponnesian War.
Crawley Translation (1910)
An aggravation of the existing calamity was the influx from the country into the city, and this was especially felt by the new arrivals. As there were no houses to receive them, they had to be lodged at the hot season of the year in stifling cabins, where the mortality raged without restraint. The bodies of dying men lay one upon another, and half-dead creatures reeled about the streets and gathered round all the fountains in their longing for water. The sacred places also in which they had quartered themselves were full of corpses of persons that had died there, just as they were; for as the disaster passed all bounds, men, not knowing what was to become of them, became utterly careless of everything, whether sacred or profane. All the burial rites before in use were entirely upset, and they buried the bodies as best they could. Many from want of the proper appliances, through so many of their friends having died already, had recourse to the most shameless sepultures: sometimes getting the start of those who had raised a pile, they threw their own dead body upon the stranger’s pyre and ignited it; sometimes they tossed the corpse which they were carrying on the top of another that was burning, and so went off.
Nor was this the only form of lawless extravagance which owed its origin to the plague. Men now coolly ventured on what they had formerly done in a corner, and not just as they pleased, seeing the rapid transitions produced by persons in prosperity suddenly dying and those who before had nothing succeeding to their property. So they resolved to spend quickly and enjoy themselves, regarding their lives and riches as alike things of a day. Perseverance in what men called honour was popular with none, it was so uncertain whether they would be spared to attain the object; but it was settled that present enjoyment, and all that contributed to it, was both honourable and useful. Fear of gods or law of man there was none to restrain them. As for the first, they judged it to be just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing; and for the last, no one expected to live to be brought to trial for his offences, but each felt that a far severer sentence had been already passed upon them all and hung ever over their heads, and before this fell it was only reasonable to enjoy life a little.
Such was the nature of the calamity, and heavily did it weigh on the Athenians; death raging within the city and devastation without. Among other things which they remembered in their distress was, very naturally, the following verse which the old men said had long ago been uttered:
Modern Translation
The existing catastrophe was made worse by the flood of refugees from the countryside into the city, and this influx hit the new arrivals particularly hard. Since there were no houses available for them, they had to take shelter during the hottest part of the year in suffocating makeshift dwellings, where death ran rampant without check. The bodies of the dying were piled on top of one another, and those half-dead staggered through the streets and crowded around every fountain, desperate for water. The sacred precincts where they had set up camp were littered with corpses of those who had died right where they lay; for as the disaster exceeded all limits, people, not knowing what would become of them, lost all regard for both sacred and secular customs. All the traditional funeral rites were completely abandoned, and people buried the dead however they could manage. Many, lacking proper materials because so many of their relatives had already perished, resorted to the most shameless burial practices: some would rush ahead of others who had built a funeral pyre and throw their own dead upon it before setting it alight; others would hurl the body they were carrying onto a pyre already burning someone else, and then hurry away.
This was not the only kind of lawless behavior that the plague brought about. People now openly did things they had previously done only in secret, acting entirely as they wished, witnessing the swift reversals of fortune as the prosperous suddenly died and those who had been penniless inherited their wealth. They decided to spend their money quickly and pursue pleasure, viewing both life and wealth as equally ephemeral. No one was interested in persevering in what people called honor, since it was so uncertain whether they would survive to achieve their goals; instead, they agreed that immediate gratification and anything that led to it was both honorable and expedient. Neither fear of the gods nor human law restrained them anymore. Regarding the gods, they concluded it made no difference whether one worshipped them or not, since they saw everyone dying indiscriminately; as for human justice, no one expected to live long enough to stand trial for their crimes, but each person felt that a much harsher sentence had already been pronounced on everyone and was hanging over their heads, and before it fell, it seemed only reasonable to enjoy life a little.
Such was the character of this affliction, and it pressed heavily upon the Athenians; death raged inside the city while destruction reigned outside. Among the many things they recalled in their suffering was, quite naturally, an ancient verse that the elderly claimed had been spoken long ago:
Historical Context
This passage describes the devastating effects of the plague that struck Athens in 430 BCE during the second year of the Peloponnesian War. The disease, possibly typhus or typhoid fever, arrived when the rural population had crowded into the city following Pericles' strategy of avoiding land battles with Sparta. The overcrowding created perfect conditions for the epidemic's spread. Thucydides, who survived the plague himself, provides this vivid eyewitness account of the complete breakdown of Athenian society - from the collapse of religious observance and burial customs to the abandonment of traditional morality. The plague killed approximately one-third of Athens' population, including Pericles himself, and fundamentally altered the course of the war by weakening Athens both militarily and psychologically. This passage demonstrates Thucydides' interest in how extreme circumstances reveal human nature and challenge social institutions.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Ancient Greek Burial Customs
Traditional Greek burial rites were sacred obligations involving washing the body, laying it out for viewing (prothesis), procession to the cemetery (ekphora), and proper cremation or inhumation. The violation of these customs during the plague represented a fundamental breakdown of religious and social order, as proper burial was essential for the soul's journey to the afterlife.
Learn more →Sacred Spaces in Athens
The sacred precincts (temene) mentioned were areas dedicated to gods where normal activities were restricted. Their use as refugee camps and the presence of unburied corpses within them represented severe religious pollution (miasma) that would normally require extensive purification rituals.
Learn more →The Plague of Athens
The plague struck Athens in 430-429 BCE and recurred in 427-426 BCE. Modern scholars debate its identity, with theories including typhoid fever, typhus, smallpox, or even Ebola. The disease killed an estimated 75,000-100,000 people, including Pericles, fundamentally altering Athens' military capacity and morale.
Learn more →Anomie in Ancient Society
Thucydides' description illustrates what sociologists call anomie - the breakdown of social norms during crisis. His analysis of how extreme circumstances reveal human nature and dissolve social constraints anticipates modern social theory and demonstrates his sophisticated understanding of collective behavior.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Lucretius: De Rerum Natura (Book 6, lines 1138-1286)
Lucretius provides a poetic account of the same Athenian plague, closely following Thucydides but adding Epicurean philosophical interpretations about the fear of death and the futility of appealing to the gods during the crisis.
Read passage →Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (Book 12, Chapter 58)
Diodorus offers a briefer account of the plague that corroborates Thucydides' description of overcrowding and social breakdown, while adding details about the plague's spread to other parts of Greece.
Read passage →Plutarch: Life of Pericles (Chapters 34-38)
Plutarch describes the plague's impact on Pericles personally, including the death of his sons and his own final illness, providing a more intimate view of how the disease affected Athens' leadership during this crisis.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Thucydides' account of social breakdown during the plague compare to modern pandemic experiences? What aspects of human behavior seem universal versus culturally specific?
- What role does religious belief play in maintaining social order according to this passage? How does Thucydides view the relationship between fear of divine punishment and moral behavior?
- How might the plague have affected Athens' democratic institutions and decision-making processes during the war? Consider both immediate and long-term impacts.
- Thucydides presents the plague as revealing true human nature when social constraints are removed. Do you agree with his essentially pessimistic view of human nature, or might people respond differently under different circumstances?