Today's Passage
This passage marks a crucial transition in Thucydides' narrative where he shifts from discussing earlier Greek conflicts to introducing his main subject—the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE).
Crawley Translation (1910)
The Median War, the greatest achievement of past times, yet found a speedy decision in two actions by sea and two by land. The Peloponnesian War was prolonged to an immense length, and, long as it was, it was short without parallel for the misfortunes that it brought upon Hellas. Never had so many cities been taken and laid desolate, here by the barbarians, here by the parties contending (the old inhabitants being sometimes removed to make room for others); never was there so much banishing and blood-shedding, now on the field of battle, now in the strife of faction. Old stories of occurrences handed down by tradition, but scantily confirmed by experience, suddenly ceased to be incredible; there were earthquakes of unparalleled extent and violence; eclipses of the sun occurred with a frequency unrecorded in previous history; there were great droughts in sundry places and consequent famines, and that most calamitous and awfully fatal visitation, the plague. All this came upon them with the late war, which was begun by the Athenians and Peloponnesians by the dissolution of the thirty years’ truce made after the conquest of Euboea. To the question why they broke the treaty, I answer by placing first an account of their grounds of complaint and points of difference, that no one may ever have to ask the immediate cause which plunged the Hellenes into a war of such magnitude. The real cause I consider to be the one which was formally most kept out of sight. The growth of the power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon, made war inevitable. Still it is well to give the grounds alleged by either side which led to the dissolution of the treaty and the breaking out of the war.
Causes of the War—The Affair of Epidamnus—The Affair of Potidæa
Modern Translation
The Persian Wars, though they represented the greatest accomplishment of earlier times, reached their conclusion swiftly through just two naval battles and two land engagements. In contrast, the Peloponnesian War dragged on for an extraordinary duration, and throughout its lengthy course, it inflicted upon Greece a series of disasters without precedent. Never before had so many cities been captured and left in ruins—some by foreign invaders, others by the warring Greek factions themselves (with original populations often expelled to accommodate new settlers). Never had there been such extensive exile and slaughter, whether in combat or through civil strife. Ancient tales passed down through generations, previously dismissed for lack of evidence, suddenly became all too believable: earthquakes struck with unprecedented scope and intensity; solar eclipses appeared more frequently than any historical record showed; severe droughts afflicted various regions, bringing famine in their wake; and most devastating of all, the plague—that catastrophic and deadly scourge. All these calamities descended upon Greece during this recent war, which began when Athens and the Peloponnesians broke the thirty-year peace treaty established after the subjugation of Euboea. Regarding why they violated this agreement, I shall first present the stated grievances and disputes of both sides, so that future generations need never wonder about the immediate triggers that plunged the Greek world into such a monumental conflict. However, I believe the truest cause—though the one least openly acknowledged—was Athens' growing power and the fear this aroused in Sparta, which made warfare inevitable. Nevertheless, it remains important to examine the specific complaints each side raised that led to the treaty's collapse and the war's outbreak.
Historical Context
This passage marks a crucial transition in Thucydides' narrative where he shifts from discussing earlier Greek conflicts to introducing his main subject—the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE). Writing as both historian and participant (he was an Athenian general), Thucydides contrasts the relatively brief Persian Wars with the prolonged devastation of the conflict between Athens and Sparta. He distinguishes between proximate causes (specific disputes like those at Epidamnus and Potidaea) and what he considers the real underlying cause: Spartan fear of growing Athenian power. This analytical approach, separating surface explanations from deeper structural causes, represents a revolutionary development in historical methodology. The passage also catalogs the war's unprecedented disasters—military destruction, civil strife, natural catastrophes, and disease—establishing the conflict's exceptional nature in Greek history.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
The Median (Persian) Wars
The Persian Wars (499-449 BCE) included famous battles like Marathon (490 BCE) and Salamis (480 BCE). Thucydides refers to 'two actions by sea and two by land'—likely Salamis and Artemisium (naval), Marathon and Plataea (land). These conflicts united Greeks against a common enemy, contrasting sharply with the internecine Peloponnesian War.
Learn more →The Thirty Years' Peace
This treaty (446/5 BCE) ended the First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. It recognized each power's sphere of influence and established arbitration procedures for disputes. Its breakdown in 431 BCE marked the beginning of the great war Thucydides chronicles.
Learn more →The Plague of Athens
The plague struck Athens in 430 BCE during the early years of the war, killing perhaps a quarter of the population, including Pericles. Thucydides, who survived the disease, provides a detailed clinical description later in his work. Modern scholars debate whether it was typhus, typhoid, or another disease.
Learn more →Thucydides' Historical Method
This passage exemplifies Thucydides' revolutionary approach to history: distinguishing immediate pretexts from underlying causes, emphasizing verifiable events over myth, and analyzing power dynamics. His method influenced all subsequent Western historiography.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Plutarch: Life of Pericles (29-31)
Plutarch discusses the causes of the war from a biographical perspective, focusing on Pericles' role and the Megarian Decree. He provides personal details absent from Thucydides' more analytical account.
Read passage →Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (12.38-40)
Diodorus offers an alternative account of the war's causes, drawing on sources other than Thucydides. He emphasizes economic factors and provides different details about the Corcyraean and Potidaean affairs.
Read passage →Aristotle: Constitution of Athens (24-27)
Aristotle analyzes Athenian imperial development and its domestic political effects, providing context for understanding how Athens' growing power alarmed other Greek states.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Thucydides' distinction between stated reasons and 'real causes' for war apply to modern conflicts? Can you think of recent examples?
- Why might Thucydides emphasize that the 'real cause' was 'formally most kept out of sight'? What does this suggest about political rhetoric versus reality?
- How does the catalog of disasters (earthquakes, eclipses, plague) function in Thucydides' argument? Is he suggesting divine punishment or simply unprecedented scale?
- Compare Thucydides' analytical approach to earlier Greek historians like Herodotus. What methodological innovations do you observe?