There is another factor that significantly reinforces my belief in the weakness of ancient times. Before the Trojan War, there is no evidence of any unified action throughout Greece, nor was the name ...

The islanders were also notorious pirates. These were Carians and Phoenicians who had colonized most of the islands, a fact proven by later evidence. When Athens purified Delos during this war, all th...

Agamemnon ruled a land-based empire; without naval power, he could not have controlled any islands except those nearest the mainland (which would have been few in number)....

From this expedition we can draw conclusions about earlier military ventures. Now, Mycenae may have been a modest settlement, and many cities from that era might seem relatively insignificant today, b...

As the power of Greece expanded and the pursuit of wealth became increasingly important, state revenues grew substantially. This economic growth led to the establishment of tyrannies nearly everywhere...

The naval forces of the Greeks during the period I have outlined were as I have described them. Despite their relative weakness, these fleets represented the greatest source of power for those who dev...

Eventually, however, the time arrived when Sparta permanently overthrew the tyrannies of Athens and the much older tyrannical regimes throughout Greece—except for those in Sicily. Although Sparta expe...

The Persian Wars, though they represented the greatest accomplishment of earlier times, reached their conclusion swiftly through just two naval battles and two land engagements. In contrast, the Pelop...

The city of Epidamnus lies to the right as one enters the Ionian Gulf. The surrounding region is populated by the Taulantians, an Illyrian tribe. This city was established as a colony by Corcyra, with...

When the Corcyraeans learned of these preparations, they sent a delegation to Corinth, accompanied by envoys from Sparta and Sicyon whom they had convinced to join them. They demanded that Corinth wit...

Following the naval engagement, the Corcyraeans erected a victory monument on Leukimme, a promontory of Corcyra, and executed all their prisoners except the Corinthians, whom they held as prisoners of...

There are numerous compelling reasons why you will have cause to congratulate yourselves if you accept our proposal. First, you will be extending aid to a state that has committed no offense against o...

If Corinth claims that it's improper for you to accept her colony as an ally, she should understand that while colonies honor their mother cities when treated well, they become alienated through unjus...

However, your true policy should be to give us open support and assistance. The benefits of this approach, as we stated at the outset of our address, are numerous. We'll highlight what is perhaps the ...

The Corcyraeans, in the speech we've just heard, don't limit themselves to discussing whether they should be admitted to your alliance. They also accuse us of injustice and claim they're victims of an...

After hearing both delegations speak, the Athenians convened two assemblies. In the first meeting, there was a clear inclination to accept Corinth's arguments. By the second assembly, however, public ...

Meanwhile, the Corinthians had completed their preparations and set sail for Corcyra with one hundred and fifty ships. Elis contributed ten vessels, Megara twelve, Leucas ten, Ambracia twenty-seven, a...

During this time, the Potidaeans dispatched ambassadors to Athens, hoping to persuade the Athenians not to take any hostile action against them. They also sent representatives to Sparta along with the...

During this time, the Potidaeans and the Peloponnesian forces under Aristeus had taken up positions on the isthmus facing Olynthus, awaiting the Athenian attack, and had set up their supply market out...

But the siege of Potidaea ended Corinth's inaction; she had citizens trapped inside the city, and moreover, she feared for its fate. She immediately summoned the allies to Sparta and vehemently accuse...

You are the ones responsible for all of this. You were the ones who first permitted them to fortify their city after the Persian War, and later to build the Long Walls. From that time until now, you h...

We hope none of you will interpret these words of warning as hostile rhetoric. After all, one corrects friends who have gone astray; accusations are reserved for enemies who have inflicted harm. Moreo...

Such is Athens, your adversary. Yet you Spartans continue to hesitate, failing to grasp that lasting peace belongs to those who not only wield their power with justice but also demonstrate their resol...

We did not come here to debate with your allies, but to address the specific matters for which our city sent us. However, the intensity of the accusations we hear leveled against us compels us to spea...

This, then, was how things turned out, and it became abundantly clear that Greece's fate rested entirely on her naval forces. To this outcome, we Athenians contributed three absolutely crucial factors...

Certainly, Spartans, we don't deserve the extreme hostility we face from the Greeks—not based on the patriotism we showed during the Persian crisis, nor the wisdom of our policies, and certainly not f...

We believe our restraint would be most clearly proven by observing how others might act in our position; yet paradoxically, our very fairness has earned us criticism rather than praise. When we've wai...

I have not lived this long, Spartans, without experiencing many wars, and I see among you men of my own age who will not make the common mistake of desiring war through inexperience or from believing ...

I would not have you be so callous as to allow them to harm your allies or to ignore their scheming; but neither should you rush immediately to war. Instead, send envoys to protest their actions in la...

The deliberate caution and careful timing that our critics attack most fiercely should not embarrass you. If we rush into war unprepared, our haste to begin will only postpone our victory. Moreover, t...

I cannot claim to understand the lengthy speech delivered by the Athenians. While they spoke extensively in self-praise, they never once denied that they are harming our allies and the Peloponnese. If...

When the Spartans realized what the Athenians intended to do, they dispatched ambassadors to Athens. They themselves would have preferred that neither Athens nor any other city possess fortification w...

The Spartans showed no outward signs of anger toward the Athenians when they heard the news. Their embassy, apparently, had been motivated not by a desire to interfere but rather to offer guidance to ...

During this period, Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was dispatched from Sparta to serve as supreme commander of the Greek forces, leading twenty ships from the Peloponnese. The Athenians joined him wit...

After the Athenians had inherited their leadership through the allies' voluntary decision—driven by their hatred of Pausanias—they determined which cities should contribute money and which should prov...