Today's Passage
This passage describes the escalation from diplomatic negotiations to open warfare between Corinth and Corcyra over the colony of Epidamnus in 435 BCE.
Crawley Translation (1910)
When the Corcyraeans heard of their preparations they came to Corinth with envoys from Lacedaemon and Sicyon, whom they persuaded to accompany them, and bade her recall the garrison and settlers, as she had nothing to do with Epidamnus. If, however, she had any claims to make, they were willing to submit the matter to the arbitration of such of the cities in Peloponnese as should be chosen by mutual agreement, and that the colony should remain with the city to whom the arbitrators might assign it. They were also willing to refer the matter to the oracle at Delphi. If, in defiance of their protestations, war was appealed to, they should be themselves compelled by this violence to seek friends in quarters where they had no desire to seek them, and to make even old ties give way to the necessity of assistance. The answer they got from Corinth was that, if they would withdraw their fleet and the barbarians from Epidamnus, negotiation might be possible; but, while the town was still being besieged, going before arbitrators was out of the question. The Corcyraeans retorted that if Corinth would withdraw her troops from Epidamnus they would withdraw theirs, or they were ready to let both parties remain in statu quo, an armistice being concluded till judgment could be given.
Turning a deaf ear to all these proposals, when their ships were manned and their allies had come in, the Corinthians sent a herald before them to declare war and, getting under way with seventy-five ships and two thousand heavy infantry, sailed for Epidamnus to give battle to the Corcyraeans. The fleet was under the command of Aristeus, son of Pellichas, Callicrates, son of Callias, and Timanor, son of Timanthes; the troops under that of Archetimus, son of Eurytimus, and Isarchidas, son of Isarchus. When they had reached Actium in the territory of Anactorium, at the mouth of the mouth of the Gulf of Ambracia, where the temple of Apollo stands, the Corcyraeans sent on a herald in a light boat to warn them not to sail against them. Meanwhile they proceeded to man their ships, all of which had been equipped for action, the old vessels being undergirded to make them seaworthy. On the return of the herald without any peaceful answer from the Corinthians, their ships being now manned, they put out to sea to meet the enemy with a fleet of eighty sail (forty were engaged in the siege of Epidamnus), formed line, and went into action, and gained a decisive victory, and destroyed fifteen of the Corinthian vessels. The same day had seen Epidamnus compelled by its besiegers to capitulate; the conditions being that the foreigners should be sold, and the Corinthians kept as prisoners of war, till their fate should be otherwise decided.
Modern Translation
When the Corcyraeans learned of these preparations, they sent a delegation to Corinth, accompanied by envoys from Sparta and Sicyon whom they had convinced to join them. They demanded that Corinth withdraw her garrison and colonists from Epidamnus, arguing that she had no legitimate claim to the city. However, if Corinth believed she had valid grounds for her actions, the Corcyraeans proposed submitting the dispute to arbitration by mutually selected Peloponnesian cities, with the colony going to whichever party the arbitrators favored. Alternatively, they suggested consulting the oracle at Delphi. They warned that if Corinth insisted on war despite these peaceful overtures, they would be forced by such aggression to seek alliances where they had previously preferred not to, abandoning old relationships out of necessity for new support. Corinth's response was that negotiations could only begin if Corcyra withdrew its fleet and barbarian allies from Epidamnus; arbitration was impossible while the siege continued. The Corcyraeans countered that they would withdraw their forces if Corinth did the same, or both sides could maintain their current positions under a truce until judgment was rendered.
Ignoring all these proposals, the Corinthians, once their ships were ready and their allies assembled, sent a herald to formally declare war. They then set sail with seventy-five ships and two thousand heavy infantry to engage the Corcyraeans at Epidamnus. The naval commanders were Aristeus son of Pellichas, Callicrates son of Callias, and Timanor son of Timanthes; the land forces were led by Archetimus son of Eurytimus and Isarchidas son of Isarchus. When they reached Actium in Anactorian territory, at the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf where Apollo's temple stands, the Corcyraeans dispatched a herald in a small vessel to warn them against attacking. Meanwhile, they prepared their ships for battle, reinforcing the older vessels to ensure seaworthiness. When their herald returned without a peaceful response, the Corcyraeans deployed their manned fleet of eighty ships (forty others were maintaining the siege of Epidamnus), formed battle lines, and engaged the enemy. They won a decisive victory, destroying fifteen Corinthian vessels. That same day, Epidamnus was forced to surrender to its besiegers on terms that all foreigners would be sold into slavery while Corinthians would be held as prisoners of war pending further decisions about their fate.
Historical Context
This passage describes the escalation from diplomatic negotiations to open warfare between Corinth and Corcyra over the colony of Epidamnus in 435 BCE. Corcyra, despite being a Corinthian colony itself, had been besieging Epidamnus after the city's democratic faction appealed to them for help. Corinth, viewing this as an affront to their colonial rights, prepared a military expedition. The Corcyraeans attempted multiple diplomatic solutions, including arbitration and religious consultation, but Corinth rejected all proposals while Epidamnus remained under siege. The resulting naval battle at Actium marked Corcyra's decisive victory, destroying a fifth of the Corinthian fleet. This conflict would eventually draw in Athens and Sparta, becoming one of the immediate causes of the Peloponnesian War, as both Corcyra and Corinth would seek support from these major powers.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Ancient Greek Arbitration
Arbitration was a common method of resolving inter-polis disputes in ancient Greece. Cities would select neutral parties to judge their claims, reflecting a preference for legal resolution over warfare. The oracle at Delphi also served as a divine arbitrator, adding religious authority to dispute resolution.
Learn more →Naval Warfare Technology
The mention of 'undergirding' older vessels refers to hypozomata - cables passed under ships' hulls to prevent structural failure in battle or rough seas. This technique was crucial for maintaining older ships in fighting condition and demonstrates the sophisticated maritime engineering of the period.
Learn more →Colonial Relations
Greek colonies (apoikiai) maintained complex relationships with their mother cities (metropoleis). While politically independent, colonies often retained religious and cultural ties. Corinth's claim to intervene in Epidamnus reflects these ambiguous relationships and the tensions they could create.
Learn more →Battle of Leucimne
This naval engagement near Corcyra (modern Corfu) was one of the largest sea battles before the Peloponnesian War. Corcyra's victory demonstrated their naval power and alarmed other Greek states, particularly as Corcyra possessed one of the largest fleets in Greece after Athens.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (Book 12.30-31)
Diodorus provides a condensed account of the Corcyra-Corinth conflict, emphasizing how this dispute drew in Athens and Sparta, ultimately precipitating the Peloponnesian War.
Read passage →Plutarch: Life of Pericles (29.1-2)
Plutarch describes Athens' later involvement in this conflict, showing how Pericles advocated for supporting Corcyra despite the risk of war with Sparta, viewing it as strategically necessary.
Read passage →Herodotus: Histories (Book 3.48-53)
Herodotus recounts earlier tensions between Corinth and Corcyra, including Periander's attempted revenge against Corcyra, providing historical context for the deep-rooted animosity between mother city and colony.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How do the Corcyraeans' multiple proposals for peaceful resolution reflect Greek diplomatic norms, and why might Corinth have rejected them all?
- What does this passage reveal about the complex relationships between Greek mother cities and their colonies? How did conflicting loyalties create international crises?
- Analyze the role of timing in this conflict - how did the simultaneous fall of Epidamnus and the naval battle affect the strategic situation?
- How does Thucydides present the escalation from diplomacy to warfare? What does this suggest about his views on the causes of conflict?