Today's Passage
This passage describes the Athenian capture of Cythera in 424 BCE, a strategic island off the Laconian coast.
Crawley Translation (1910)
Coming to land here with their armament, the Athenians with ten ships and two thousand Milesian heavy infantry took the town of Scandea, on the sea; and with the rest of their forces landing on the side of the island looking towards Malea, went against the lower town of Cythera, where they found all the inhabitants encamped. A battle ensuing, the Cytherians held their ground for some little while, and then turned and fled into the upper town, where they soon afterwards capitulated to Nicias and his colleagues, agreeing to leave their fate to the decision of the Athenians, their lives only being safe. A correspondence had previously been going on between Nicias and certain of the inhabitants, which caused the surrender to be effected more speedily, and upon terms more advantageous, present and future, for the Cytherians; who would otherwise have been expelled by the Athenians on account of their being Lacedaemonians and their island being so near to Laconia. After the capitulation, the Athenians occupied the town of Scandea near the harbour, and appointing a garrison for Cythera, sailed to Asine, Helus, and most of the places on the sea, and making descents and passing the night on shore at such spots as were convenient, continued ravaging the country for about seven days.
The Lacedaemonians seeing the Athenians masters of Cythera, and expecting descents of the kind upon their coasts, nowhere opposed them in force, but sent garrisons here and there through the country, consisting of as many heavy infantry as the points menaced seemed to require, and generally stood very much upon the defensive. After the severe and unexpected blow that had befallen them in the island, the occupation of Pylos and Cythera, and the apparition on every side of a war whose rapidity defied precaution, they lived in constant fear of internal revolution, and now took the unusual step of raising four hundred horse and a force of archers, and became more timid than ever in military matters, finding themselves involved in a maritime struggle, which their organization had never contemplated, and that against Athenians, with whom an enterprise unattempted was always looked upon as a success sacrificed. Besides this, their late numerous reverses of fortune, coming close one upon another without any reason, had thoroughly unnerved them, and they were always afraid of a second disaster like that on the island, and thus scarcely dared to take the field, but fancied that they could not stir without a blunder, for being new to the experience of adversity they had lost all confidence in themselves.
Modern Translation
Landing with their fleet at this location, the Athenians deployed ten ships and two thousand Milesian heavy infantry to capture the coastal town of Scandea. Meanwhile, their remaining forces disembarked on the side of the island facing Malea and advanced against the lower town of Cythera, where they discovered the entire population had assembled in defensive positions. When battle was joined, the Cytherians maintained their resistance briefly before retreating into the upper town. There they quickly negotiated terms with Nicias and his fellow commanders, surrendering on the condition that the Athenians would determine their fate, with only their lives guaranteed. Nicias had been conducting secret negotiations with certain inhabitants beforehand, which expedited the surrender and secured more favorable terms, both immediate and long-term, for the Cytherians. Had this not occurred, the Athenians would have expelled them due to their Lacedaemonian heritage and the island's proximity to Laconia. Following the capitulation, the Athenians garrisoned both the town of Scandea near the harbor and Cythera itself, then sailed to Asine, Helus, and various other coastal settlements. They conducted raids and spent nights ashore at strategic points, devastating the countryside for approximately seven days.
The Lacedaemonians, observing the Athenians' control of Cythera and anticipating similar coastal raids, avoided any concentrated resistance. Instead, they dispersed garrisons throughout the territory, deploying heavy infantry units sized according to each location's vulnerability, and adopted an entirely defensive posture. Following the devastating and unforeseen catastrophe on the island, combined with the enemy occupation of Pylos and Cythera, and facing the emergence of a rapidly moving war on multiple fronts that outpaced their ability to prepare, they feared domestic upheaval. In an unprecedented move, they recruited four hundred cavalry and a contingent of archers, becoming more cautious than ever in military operations. They found themselves engaged in naval warfare—something their entire system had never envisioned—against the Athenians, who considered any unexecuted plan a forfeited victory. Furthermore, their recent string of inexplicable military disasters, following in rapid succession, had completely shattered their morale. They lived in perpetual dread of another island-like catastrophe and consequently barely ventured into the field, convinced that every action would result in failure. Unaccustomed to misfortune, they had entirely lost faith in their own capabilities.
Historical Context
This passage describes the Athenian capture of Cythera in 424 BCE, a strategic island off the Laconian coast. Following their victory at Pylos, the Athenians under Nicias seized this crucial Spartan outpost through a combination of military force and diplomatic intrigue. The occupation of Cythera represented a significant escalation in Athens' strategy of establishing fortified positions in enemy territory. The passage also reveals Sparta's psychological collapse following recent defeats, particularly the disaster at Sphacteria where Spartan hoplites surrendered. Thucydides emphasizes how these setbacks fundamentally altered Spartan military doctrine, forcing them to adopt defensive strategies and non-traditional forces like cavalry and archers. This marks a critical turning point where Spartan confidence, traditionally their greatest asset, had been shattered by repeated Athenian successes.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Cythera's Strategic Importance
Cythera controlled the sea routes to Laconia and served as a crucial waystation for merchant vessels from Egypt and Libya. Its capture gave Athens a permanent base for raids on the Spartan homeland and disrupted Sparta's maritime commerce, forcing them to maintain expensive garrisons along their entire coastline.
Learn more →Spartan Military Innovation
The raising of cavalry and archers represents a radical departure from traditional Spartan warfare, which relied almost exclusively on hoplite infantry. This adaptation shows how Athenian pressure forced Sparta to abandon its conservative military doctrine and adopt more flexible tactics suitable for defending against raids.
Learn more →Nicias's Diplomatic Methods
Nicias's secret correspondence with Cytherian inhabitants exemplifies his preference for negotiation over force. This approach, characteristic of his cautious leadership style, secured favorable terms for the islanders while avoiding unnecessary bloodshed, contrasting with more aggressive Athenian commanders like Cleon.
Learn more →Psychological Warfare
Thucydides emphasizes the psychological impact of repeated defeats on Spartan morale. The fear of 'internal revolution' and loss of confidence illustrates how military setbacks could undermine the entire social order of a Greek polis, particularly one as rigid as Sparta.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Plutarch: Life of Nicias (6.1-3)
Plutarch describes Nicias's capture of Cythera, emphasizing his moderate treatment of the inhabitants and contrasting his methods with more aggressive Athenian generals. He notes how this success enhanced Nicias's reputation for both military competence and humanity.
Read passage →Xenophon: Hellenica (1.1.1-2)
Though dealing with later events, Xenophon describes similar Athenian coastal raids and their impact on Spartan morale, showing the long-term effectiveness of the strategy initiated with the capture of Cythera.
Read passage →Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (12.65.1-3)
Diodorus provides a parallel account of the Cythera campaign, offering additional details about the size of forces involved and the strategic reasoning behind targeting the island.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Thucydides portray the relationship between military defeat and psychological collapse? What modern parallels might exist?
- What does the Spartan adoption of cavalry and archers reveal about the relationship between military innovation and cultural conservatism?
- How does Nicias's use of secret negotiations at Cythera reflect broader tensions between force and diplomacy in Athenian strategy?
- What does this passage suggest about the importance of morale and confidence in ancient warfare compared to material factors?