Today's Passage
This passage describes a pivotal moment in Greek history following the Persian Wars (478 BCE), when leadership of the anti-Persian alliance shifted from Sparta to Athens.
Crawley Translation (1910)
Meanwhile Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was sent out from Lacedaemon as commander-in-chief of the Hellenes, with twenty ships from Peloponnese. With him sailed the Athenians with thirty ships, and a number of the other allies. They made an expedition against Cyprus and subdued most of the island, and afterwards against Byzantium, which was in the hands of the Medes, and compelled it to surrender. This event took place while the Spartans were still supreme. But the violence of Pausanias had already begun to be disagreeable to the Hellenes, particularly to the Ionians and the newly liberated populations. These resorted to the Athenians and requested them as their kinsmen to become their leaders, and to stop any attempt at violence on the part of Pausanias. The Athenians accepted their overtures, and determined to put down any attempt of the kind and to settle everything else as their interests might seem to demand. In the meantime the Lacedaemonians recalled Pausanias for an investigation of the reports which had reached them. Manifold and grave accusations had been brought against him by Hellenes arriving in Sparta; and, to all appearance, there had been in him more of the mimicry of a despot than of the attitude of a general. As it happened, his recall came just at the time when the hatred which he had inspired had induced the allies to desert him, the soldiers from Peloponnese excepted, and to range themselves by the side of the Athenians. On his arrival at Lacedaemon, he was censured for his private acts of oppression, but was acquitted on the heaviest counts and pronounced not guilty; it must be known that the charge of Medism formed one of the principal, and to all appearance one of the best founded, articles against him. The Lacedaemonians did not, however, restore him to his command, but sent out Dorkis and certain others with a small force; who found the allies no longer inclined to concede to them the supremacy. Perceiving this they departed, and the Lacedaemonians did not send out any to succeed them. They feared for those who went out a deterioration similar to that observable in Pausanias; besides, they desired to be rid of the Median War, and were satisfied of the competency of the Athenians for the position, and of their friendship at the time towards themselves.
Modern Translation
During this period, Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, was dispatched from Sparta to serve as supreme commander of the Greek forces, leading twenty ships from the Peloponnese. The Athenians joined him with thirty vessels, along with numerous other allied contingents. They launched a campaign against Cyprus, bringing most of the island under their control, then proceeded to Byzantium, which was occupied by Persian forces, and successfully compelled its surrender. These operations occurred while Spartan leadership remained unchallenged. However, Pausanias's harsh and overbearing conduct had already begun to alienate the Greek allies, especially the Ionians and recently liberated peoples. These groups approached the Athenians, appealing to them as ethnic kinsmen to assume leadership and prevent any further abuses by Pausanias. The Athenians welcomed these overtures and resolved to suppress any such misconduct while arranging all other matters according to their own strategic interests. Meanwhile, the Spartans summoned Pausanias home to answer the allegations that had reached them. Greek visitors to Sparta had lodged numerous serious complaints against him; indeed, his behavior appeared more characteristic of a tyrant than a military commander. His recall coincided precisely with the moment when his unpopularity had prompted the allies—except for the Peloponnesian contingent—to abandon him and align themselves with Athens. Upon reaching Sparta, he faced censure for various personal abuses of power but was cleared of the most serious charges and declared innocent. Notably, accusations of collaborating with Persia constituted one of the primary and apparently most credible charges against him. The Spartans, however, did not reinstate him to his command. Instead, they sent Dorkis and several others with a modest force, only to discover that the allies were no longer willing to accept Spartan supremacy. Recognizing this reality, they withdrew, and the Spartans chose not to send replacements. They were concerned that future commanders might suffer the same corruption that had afflicted Pausanias. Moreover, they wished to disengage from the Persian War and were confident in Athenian competence for leadership, trusting in the friendship that existed between the two states at that time.
Historical Context
This passage describes a pivotal moment in Greek history following the Persian Wars (478 BCE), when leadership of the anti-Persian alliance shifted from Sparta to Athens. Pausanias, the Spartan regent and victor at Plataea, had been leading combined Greek forces in operations to liberate Greek cities still under Persian control. His arrogant behavior and suspected Persian sympathies alienated the Ionian Greeks, who turned to Athens for protection. When Sparta recalled Pausanias and sent inadequate replacements, they effectively ceded leadership of the naval alliance to Athens. This moment marks the birth of the Delian League and the beginning of Athenian imperial power, setting the stage for the eventual conflict between Athens and Sparta that would culminate in the Peloponnesian War.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Pausanias and Medism
Pausanias, the Spartan regent, was repeatedly accused of 'Medism' (pro-Persian sympathies). His adoption of Persian dress and customs, along with secret negotiations with Xerxes, made him a controversial figure. Though acquitted in Sparta, suspicions persisted, and he was later caught in treasonous correspondence with Persia.
Learn more →The Delian League
This passage describes the genesis of the Delian League (478 BCE), when Greek allies transferred leadership from Sparta to Athens. Initially a defensive alliance against Persia, it gradually transformed into an Athenian empire, with member states paying tribute to Athens rather than contributing ships and soldiers.
Learn more →Spartan Isolationism
Sparta's voluntary withdrawal from overseas leadership reflects their traditional isolationist policy and focus on maintaining control over the helot population in the Peloponnese. This decision allowed Athens to fill the power vacuum and build a maritime empire, fundamentally altering the balance of power in Greece.
Learn more →Kinship Diplomacy
The Ionians' appeal to Athens as 'kinsmen' reflects the importance of ethnic ties in Greek diplomacy. Both Ionians and Athenians claimed descent from Ion, making them part of the Ionian tribal group, distinct from the Dorian Spartans. This shared identity provided ideological justification for Athenian leadership.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Plutarch: Life of Aristides (23.1-4)
Plutarch provides additional details about how Aristides the Just helped establish the Delian League immediately after these events, including the first assessment of tribute and the oath-taking ceremony on Delos.
Read passage →Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (11.44-46)
Diodorus offers a parallel account of Pausanias's misconduct and the transfer of hegemony to Athens, including details about Pausanias's Persian negotiations and his ultimate fate when he returned to Byzantium privately.
Read passage →Plutarch: Life of Cimon (6.1-3)
Describes how the Athenian general Cimon succeeded where Pausanias failed, using diplomacy and fair treatment to win over the allies, contrasting sharply with Pausanias's tyrannical behavior.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Pausanias's behavior illustrate the corrupting influence of power, and what does this suggest about the challenges facing Greek leaders after their victory over Persia?
- Why might the Ionians have preferred Athenian to Spartan leadership? Consider cultural, political, and practical factors in your response.
- Thucydides notes that Sparta 'feared for those who went out a deterioration similar to that observable in Pausanias.' What does this reveal about Spartan society and its relationship with the outside world?
- How does this passage illustrate the transition from cooperative alliance to imperial hegemony? What warning signs can we identify?