Today's Passage
This passage occurs during the early stages of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), specifically before a naval engagement in the Gulf of Corinth.
Crawley Translation (1910)
“Peloponnesians, the late engagement, which may have made some of you afraid of the one now in prospect, really gives no just ground for apprehension. Preparation for it, as you know, there was little enough; and the object of our voyage was not so much to fight at sea as an expedition by land. Besides this, the chances of war were largely against us; and perhaps also inexperience had something to do with our failure in our first naval action. It was not, therefore, cowardice that produced our defeat, nor ought the determination which force has not quelled, but which still has a word to say with its adversary, to lose its edge from the result of an accident; but admitting the possibility of a chance miscarriage, we should know that brave hearts must be always brave, and while they remain so can never put forward inexperience as an excuse for misconduct. Nor are you so behind the enemy in experience as you are ahead of him in courage; and although the science of your opponents would, if valour accompanied it, have also the presence of mind to carry out at in emergency the lesson it has learnt, yet a faint heart will make all art powerless in the face of danger. For fear takes away presence of mind, and without valour art is useless. Against their superior experience set your superior daring, and against the fear induced by defeat the fact of your having been then unprepared; remember, too, that you have always the advantage of superior numbers, and of engaging off your own coast, supported by your heavy infantry; and as a rule, numbers and equipment give victory. At no point, therefore, is defeat likely; and as for our previous mistakes, the very fact of their occurrence will teach us better for the future. Steersmen and sailors may, therefore, confidently attend to their several duties, none quitting the station assigned to them: as for ourselves, we promise to prepare for the engagement at least as well as your previous commanders, and to give no excuse for any one misconducting himself. Should any insist on doing so, he shall meet with the punishment he deserves, while the brave shall be honoured with the appropriate rewards of valour.”
The Peloponnesian commanders encouraged their men after this fashion. Phormio, meanwhile, being himself not without fears for the courage of his men, and noticing that they were forming in groups among themselves and were alarmed at the odds against them, desired to call them together and give them confidence and counsel in the present emergency. He had before continually told them, and had accustomed their minds to the idea, that there was no numerical superiority that they could not face; and the men themselves had long been persuaded that Athenians need never retire before any quantity of Peloponnesian vessels. At the moment, however, he saw that they were dispirited by the sight before them, and wishing to refresh their confidence, called them together and spoke as follows:
Modern Translation
Peloponnesians, while our recent engagement may have left some of you apprehensive about the coming battle, there are no legitimate grounds for such fear. As you're aware, we had minimal preparation for that encounter, and our expedition's primary objective was land-based operations, not naval combat. Furthermore, the fortunes of war worked considerably against us, and our inexperience likely contributed to our failure in that first sea battle. Our defeat didn't stem from cowardice, nor should our resolve—which remains unbroken despite setbacks and still has much to prove against our enemy—be dulled by an unfortunate accident. While we must acknowledge that mishaps can occur, we should remember that truly brave hearts maintain their courage consistently, and such constancy precludes using inexperience to justify poor performance. You may lag behind the enemy in experience, but you surpass them in courage. Though your opponents' expertise might, if paired with bravery, enable them to execute their training even in crisis, a timid spirit renders all skill impotent when facing danger. Fear destroys composure, and without courage, technical knowledge becomes worthless. Counter their greater experience with your superior boldness, and offset your defeat-induced anxiety by remembering you were then unprepared. Don't forget your perpetual advantages: superior numbers and fighting near your own shores with heavy infantry support—factors that typically ensure victory. No element suggests inevitable defeat; indeed, our past errors will serve as instructive lessons. Therefore, helmsmen and sailors should confidently execute their duties without abandoning assigned positions. We pledge to prepare for battle at least as thoroughly as your former commanders, eliminating any pretext for misconduct. Anyone who persists in cowardice will face appropriate punishment, while the valiant will receive honors befitting their courage.
The Peloponnesian commanders delivered this encouragement to their forces. Meanwhile, Phormio harbored concerns about his men's morale. Observing them clustering in worried groups, clearly intimidated by the enemy's numerical superiority, he decided to assemble them for reassurance and strategic guidance in this critical moment. He had consistently maintained—and conditioned them to believe—that no enemy fleet, regardless of size, should intimidate them. The men had long internalized the principle that Athenians need never retreat from any number of Peloponnesian ships. However, seeing their current dismay at the imposing sight before them, he wished to restore their confidence and convened them for the following address:
Historical Context
This passage occurs during the early stages of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), specifically before a naval engagement in the Gulf of Corinth. The Peloponnesian fleet, having suffered a previous defeat, receives encouragement from their commanders who emphasize courage over experience. Phormio, the brilliant Athenian naval commander, simultaneously prepares to address his outnumbered forces. This moment highlights the contrasting naval philosophies: the Peloponnesians rely on numbers and traditional courage, while the Athenians depend on superior seamanship and tactical innovation. The scene sets up one of the war's early demonstrations of Athenian naval supremacy, which would prove crucial to their strategy of avoiding land battles while controlling the seas.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Athenian Naval Supremacy
Athens' naval dominance was built on superior seamanship, innovative tactics, and the trireme warship. Their rowers were professional citizens, not slaves, giving them better morale and coordination. This expertise allowed smaller Athenian fleets to routinely defeat larger enemy forces.
Learn more →Phormio
Phormio was one of Athens' most successful admirals, known for his innovative tactics and ability to defeat numerically superior forces. His victories in 429 BCE demonstrated that skill and strategy could overcome raw numbers in naval warfare.
Learn more →Pre-Battle Speeches
Pre-battle exhortations were a crucial element of ancient warfare, serving to boost morale and remind soldiers of what they fought for. Thucydides uses these speeches to reveal cultural values and military doctrine.
Learn more →Heavy Infantry Support
The reference to heavy infantry (hoplites) supporting naval operations reflects the interconnected nature of ancient warfare. Ships often fought near coastlines where land forces could influence the battle's outcome.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (Book 12.48)
Diodorus provides a parallel account of Phormio's naval victories, emphasizing Athenian tactical superiority and the psychological impact of their naval reputation on enemy forces.
Read passage →Plutarch: Life of Pericles (Chapter 26)
Plutarch discusses Athenian naval policy under Pericles, explaining the strategic emphasis on sea power that made commanders like Phormio possible.
Read passage →Xenophon: Hellenica (Book 1.6.16-18)
Xenophon describes similar pre-battle naval exhortations during the later Peloponnesian War, showing the continuity of rhetorical themes about courage versus experience.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How do the two speeches reveal different cultural attitudes toward warfare between Athens and the Peloponnesian states?
- What role does the concept of 'experience versus courage' play in military thinking, both ancient and modern?
- How does Thucydides use these parallel speeches to comment on the nature of leadership and morale in warfare?
- What can we learn about the psychology of numerical superiority versus tactical expertise from these passages?