Today's Passage
This passage, from early in Book 2, describes the atmosphere and alignments at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE.
Crawley Translation (1910)
And if both sides nourished the boldest hopes and put forth their utmost strength for the war, this was only natural. Zeal is always at its height at the commencement of an undertaking; and on this particular occasion Peloponnese and Athens were both full of young men whose inexperience made them eager to take up arms, while the rest of Hellas stood straining with excitement at the conflict of its leading cities. Everywhere predictions were being recited and oracles being chanted by such persons as collect them, and this not only in the contending cities. Further, some while before this, there was an earthquake at Delos, for the first time in the memory of the Hellenes. This was said and thought to be ominous of the events impending; indeed, nothing of the kind that happened was allowed to pass without remark. The good wishes of men made greatly for the Lacedaemonians, especially as they proclaimed themselves the liberators of Hellas. No private or public effort that could help them in speech or action was omitted; each thinking that the cause suffered wherever he could not himself see to it. So general was the indignation felt against Athens, whether by those who wished to escape from her empire, or were apprehensive of being absorbed by it. Such were the preparations and such the feelings with which the contest opened.
The allies of the two belligerents were the following. These were the allies of Lacedaemon: all the Peloponnesians within the Isthmus except the Argives and Achaeans, who were neutral; Pellene being the only Achaean city that first joined in the war, though her example was afterwards followed by the rest. Outside Peloponnese the Megarians, Locrians, Boeotians, Phocians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. Of these, ships were furnished by the Corinthians, Megarians, Sicyonians, Pellenians, Eleans, Ambraciots, and Leucadians; and cavalry by the Boeotians, Phocians, and Locrians. The other states sent infantry. This was the Lacedaemonian confederacy. That of Athens comprised the Chians, Lesbians, Plataeans, the Messenians in Naupactus, most of the Acarnanians, the Corcyraeans, Zacynthians, and some tributary cities in the following countries, viz., Caria upon the sea with her Dorian neighbours, Ionia, the Hellespont, the Thracian towns, the islands lying between Peloponnese and Crete towards the east, and all the Cyclades except Melos and Thera. Of these, ships were furnished by Chios, Lesbos, and Corcyra, infantry and money by the rest. Such were the allies of either party and their resources for the war.
Modern Translation
It was entirely natural that both sides harbored the most ambitious expectations and committed their full strength to the war effort. Enthusiasm invariably reaches its peak at the beginning of any great enterprise, and in this case, both the Peloponnese and Athens were filled with young men whose lack of experience made them eager for combat. Meanwhile, the rest of Greece watched with intense anticipation as its two greatest powers prepared to clash. Throughout the Greek world, people recited prophecies and chanted oracles—those who made a practice of collecting such things were especially active, not just in the warring cities but everywhere. Moreover, shortly before these events, Delos experienced an earthquake—the first within Greek memory. This was interpreted as a portent of the coming catastrophe; indeed, no unusual occurrence went unnoticed or uncommented upon. Public sentiment strongly favored the Spartans, particularly because they presented themselves as the liberators of Greece. No effort was spared, whether by individuals or communities, to support them through words or deeds; everyone felt that the cause would suffer if they failed to contribute personally. The hostility toward Athens was widespread—both among those seeking to break free from her empire and those fearing they might be conquered by it. These were the preparations and the prevailing attitudes as the conflict began.
The following states aligned themselves with each belligerent. Sparta's allies included all the Peloponnesian states within the Isthmus except Argos and Achaea, which remained neutral (though Pellene was the sole Achaean city to join initially, with others following later). Beyond the Peloponnese, the Megarians, Locrians, Boeotians, Phocians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians sided with Sparta. Naval forces were provided by Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Pellene, Elis, Ambracia, and Leucas; cavalry came from Boeotia, Phocis, and Locris; the remaining states contributed infantry. This constituted the Spartan confederation. Athens's alliance included Chios, Lesbos, Plataea, the Messenians at Naupactus, most of Acarnania, Corcyra, Zacynthus, and numerous tribute-paying cities in various regions: coastal Caria with its Dorian neighbors, Ionia, the Hellespont region, the Thracian territories, the eastern islands between the Peloponnese and Crete, and all the Cycladic islands except Melos and Thera. Chios, Lesbos, and Corcyra supplied ships; the others provided infantry and financial support. These were the respective alliances and resources available for the war.
Historical Context
This passage, from early in Book 2, describes the atmosphere and alignments at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE. Thucydides captures the enthusiasm and anticipation that gripped the Greek world as Athens and Sparta, the two superpowers, prepared for conflict. The passage emphasizes how youth and inexperience fueled eagerness for war, while religious omens—particularly an unprecedented earthquake at the sacred island of Delos—heightened the sense of momentous change. Thucydides then provides a systematic catalog of each side's allies, revealing the geographic scope of the conflict. Sparta's confederation dominated the Peloponnese and had some northern allies, while Athens's empire stretched across the Aegean, controlling numerous islands and coastal cities. This alignment would largely determine the war's character: Sparta's land-based coalition versus Athens's maritime empire.
Key Themes
Annotations & References
Delos Earthquake
Delos, birthplace of Apollo and Artemis, was considered sacred and politically neutral. The unprecedented earthquake there was interpreted as divine displeasure or warning about the coming war, reflecting Greek belief in supernatural omens preceding major events.
Learn more →Spartan Liberation Propaganda
Sparta's claim to be 'liberating' Greece from Athenian tyranny was a powerful propaganda tool. This rhetoric appealed to cities under Athenian control and helped Sparta gain moral high ground, despite Sparta's own record of controlling other states.
Learn more →Athenian Empire
The Delian League had transformed into an Athenian empire by 431 BCE. Member states paid tribute to Athens and were prevented from leaving the alliance, creating resentment that Sparta exploited in its propaganda war.
Learn more →Greek Oracles
Oracles and prophecies played a crucial role in Greek decision-making, especially before major undertakings like war. Professional collectors and interpreters of oracles (chresmologoi) became particularly active during crises, influencing public opinion.
Learn more →Parallel Ancient Sources
Plutarch: Life of Pericles (29-31)
Plutarch describes the same pre-war period, focusing on Pericles' strategy and the Megarian Decree's role in escalating tensions, providing personal details Thucydides omits.
Read passage →Diodorus Siculus: Library of History (12.38-40)
Diodorus provides an alternative account of the war's outbreak and the alliances, though less detailed than Thucydides, offering some different perspectives on causation.
Read passage →Aristophanes: Acharnians (lines 515-539)
This comedy, produced in 425 BCE, satirizes the war's origins and popular enthusiasm for conflict, providing contemporary Athenian perspective on the events Thucydides describes.
Read passage →Discussion Questions
- How does Thucydides' emphasis on youth and inexperience shape our understanding of the war's origins? What modern parallels might we draw?
- Why might Sparta's 'liberation' rhetoric have been so effective, and how does this relate to propaganda in other conflicts?
- What does the detailed catalogue of allies reveal about the nature of power and alliance systems in classical Greece?
- How should we interpret the role of oracles and omens in political decision-making? Does Thucydides seem to endorse or critique this practice?